Lauren Arnold, Spring 2025
For centuries, European geographers believed in the existence of Terra Australis Incognita, a southern continent thought necessary to balance the continents of the Northern Hemisphere. This belief was widespread and appeared in maps and texts well into the eighteenth century. In 1772, the British Admiralty sent Captain James Cook on his second voyage with the purpose of testing this theory. Aboard the HMS Resolution, accompanied by the HMS Adventure, Cook was instructed to search for any southern continent and to investigate islands previously reported by the French [1]. Over the course of his three-year expedition, Cook became the first recorded explorer to cross the Antarctic Circle and made a number of observations. These observations led him to conclude that if a continent existed, it was inaccessible, ice-covered, and of no strategic value. This conclusion had lasting effects, putting British Antarctic exploration on pause until the 1820s.
Cook and his crew departed England in July 1772. They soon began navigating high southern latitudes, encountering extremely harsh conditions. The environment was full of freezing temperatures, heavy fog, and floating pack ice. Over time, they discovered a number of small, rocky islands scattered throughout the Southern Ocean [1][2]. These islands were completely barren, with no signs of humans, vegetation, or useful resources [1][2]. For Cook, these discoveries served as evidence that the southern continent would be inhabitable. If a continent did exist further south, it was likely made up of similar frozen and uninhabitable terrain [1].
The expedition recorded frequent and dangerous encounters with dense sea ice, especially as they attempted to sail further south. In January 1773, Cook’s ship ran into thick pack ice near what is now known as Enderby Land in East Antarctica [3][4][5]. Cook had come remarkably close to the continent itself but the ice was impassable. Despite efforts to push through, the Resolution and Adventure were repeatedly blocked. The risk to the ships and crew was too great, and they were forced to turn back not knowing how close they actually were to reaching the coast.
Throughout the journey, Cook relied heavily on observation and data collection. He made notes in his journals about the distribution of sea ice in various parts of the Southern Ocean. One pattern he noted was that sea ice appeared at lower latitudes in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans than in the Pacific. From this, he inferred that the source of the ice was a landmass located somewhere further south, but that the land was entirely covered in ice and unreachable by ships. Cook concluded that there may be a continent, but it was neither large nor valuable. The lives of his men were not worth the risk of continuing the search [1][4].
Naturalist George Forster, who traveled with Cook, also documented the expedition in great detail. Forster's accounts show additional evidence of the extreme weather and the risks of navigating the ice-covered area. The environment was so hostile that Forster, like Cook, came to believe that any possible southern land was not worth the effort of further exploration [2].
By January 1775, Cook had made several attempts to breach the Antarctic ice with no success. After repeated encounters with dangerous pack ice and failing to find a solid landmass, he officially gave up the search. In his final conclusion, he stated that any continent was unlikely to be of use to Britain [1][2].
The impact of Cook’s dismissal was immediate and long-lasting. His reports convinced the British Admiralty that there was no commercial or strategic interest to be found deep in the southern hemisphere. As a result, interest in Antarctic exploration dropped sharply. For nearly 50 years, the region was largely ignored by British explorers. The idea of Terra Australis Incognita was removed from most maps, replaced instead by the Southern Icy Ocean [2].
Cook’s second voyage fundamentally changed European understanding of the southern hemisphere. His observations, journals, and final decision played an important part in ending the myth of a great southern continent. By showing that the southern regions were ice covered, Cook shifted the focus of exploration away from Antarctica and more towards the Pacific islands, as seen in his third voyage. It would not be until the 1820s, with advances in shipbuilding and renewed interest, that explorers would once again search for Antarctica [3].
Bibliography
1 Cook, James. Captain Cook's Voyages Round the World for Making Discoveries Towards the North and South Poles. British Library, 1811.
2 Forster, George. A Voyage Round the World. B. White. British Library, 1777.
3 Wharton, W. J. L. South Polar Chart. Shewing Tracks of Vessels and Discoveries to 1900 / Chart of the South Polar Sea. Hydrographic Office of the Admiralty. British Library, 1839-1911.
4 Evans, F. J., and G. P. M. Dougall. Ice Chart of the Southern Hemisphere. Admiralty Hydrographic Department. British Library, 1866.
5 Bruce, William S. Scottish National Antarctic Expedition: Bathymetrical Survey of the South Atlantic Ocean and Weddell Sea. Scottish Oceanographical Laboratory. British Library, 1904–1906.
Acknowledgments
Funding for this Study Abroad class provided by the UAH Honors College. I would also like to thank the staff in the maps reading room at the British Library for assisting me.
